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2018 年 8 月 26 日托福阅读回忆和解析

2018-08-29

来源:环球教育

小编:洛伊 1814
摘要:

  综合点评
  作为暑假末的第二场考试,今天的考试依然是采取几套题拼盘的形式,普遍考生觉得较难,特别是
  加试题目,总体上考试的话题依然是会重复一些这两年考过的文章,以及再现一些TPO文章主题,
  建议考生们利用好机经和TPO真题来好好复习。
  Passageone学科分类题目
  生物类WeakElectricSystemsinFish
  内容回忆
  文章开头讲了一种鱼(elephantnosefish)能够通过放电来探测周围水域的物体,这种
  现象被叫做放电定位(electrolocation)。这种鱼终身都会放电,不过电场很弱,很难被人操
  作,但是却能形成电场,任何对象进入这个电场都会被扭曲。弱电气系统有一些规则,比如
  探索新环境即使他们看不到。科学家不仅对electrolocation感兴趣,也对他们对这类鱼
  的沟通感兴趣,他们发现这些鱼沟通主要的功能有:求偶交配、侵略行为(aggression)
  参考阅读
  Anelectricfishisanyfishthatcangenerateelectricfields.Afishthatcangenerateelectricfields
  issaidtobeelectrogenicwhileafishthathastheabilitytodetectelectricfieldsissaidto
  beelectroreceptive.Mostelectrogenicfisharealsoelectroreceptive.Electricfishspeciescanbe
  foundbothintheoceanandinfreshwaterriversofSouthAmerica(Gymnotiformes)andAfrica
  (Mormyridae).Manyfishsuchassharks,raysandcatfishescandetectelectricfieldsandarethus
  electroreceptive,buttheyarenotclassifiedaselectricfishbecausetheycannotgenerate
  electricity.Mostcommonbonyfish(teleosts),includingmostfishkeptinaquariaorcaughtfor
  food,areneitherelectrogenicnorelectroreceptive.
  Weaklyelectricfishgenerateadischargethatistypicallylessthanonevolt.Thesearetooweak
  tostunpreyandinsteadareusedfornavigation,objectdetection(electrolocation)and
  communicationwithotherelectricfish(electrocommunication).Twoofthebest-knownand
  most-studiedexamplesarePeters'elephantnosefish(Gnathonemuspetersi)andtheblackghost
  knifefish(Apteronotusalbifrons).ThemalesofthenocturnalBrachyhypopomuspinnicaudatus,a
  toothlessknifefishnativetotheAmazonbasin,giveoffbig,longelectrichumstoattractamate.
  Theelectricorgandischargewaveformtakestwogeneralformsdependingonthespecies.
  Insomespeciesthewaveformiscontinuousandalmostsinusoidal(forexamplethe
  generaApteronotus,EigenmanniaandGymnarchus)andthesearesaidtohaveawave-type
  electricorgandischarge.Inotherspecies,theelectricorgandischargewaveformconsistsofbrief
  pulsesseparatedbylongergaps(forexampleGnathonemus,Gymnotus,Leucoraja)andtheseare
  saidtohaveapulse-typeelectricorgandischarge.
  Passagetwo学科分类题目
  生物类
  DinosaursandParentalCare
  内容回忆
  重复2015.2/2018.1.6/2018.7.1真题:文章第一段讲了化石记录无法判断恐龙是否会去照顾
  后代,一些恐龙巢穴里是有恐龙会在窝里产蛋;第二段从恐龙巢穴的结构看出恐龙是会进
  行孵化的,第三段主要讲了亲本抚养依然具有很大争议性;第四段讲到最强有利的证据来
  源于恐龙的亲缘动物-鸟类和鳄鱼,因为这些动物都展现了亲本抚养,作为来自同一祖先的
  恐龙也会有亲本抚养。
  参考阅读
  真题:Fromfossilevidencealonethequestionofwhetherornotdinosaurscaredfortheiryoung
  isverydifficulttoanswer.Becausebehaviorsarenotpreservedinthefossilrecord,wecanonly
  makeinferencesfromindirectevidence.Parentalcarecanbedividedintotwotypesofbehavior:
  prehatching(buildingnestsandincubatingeggs—forexample,sittingontopofthemsoasto
  warmtheeggsandencouragehatching)andposthatching(feedingtheyoungandguardingthe
  nests).Mostofourevidencecomesfromallegeddinosaurrookeries(placeswherenestsare
  built).SeveralhavebeenexcavatedineasternMontana,wherealargeconcentrationof
  dinosaurnestswasfoundataplacenowcalledEggMountain.Mostoftheseprobablybelonged
  tothehadrosaurMaiasaura.Preservedinthesenestsarethebonesofbabydinosaurs.Thefinds
  atEggMountainandothersitesaroundtheworlddocumentthatdinosaurslaidtheireggsin
  nests.
  ThenestsatEggMountainarereportedtobeequallyspaced,separatedbyaspacecorresponding
  tothelengthofanadultMaiasaura.Fromthisarrangementscientistshaveinferredthatthenests
  wereseparatedinthiswaytoallowincubationinatightlypackednestingcolony.Althoughthis
  interpretationisopentochallenge,thediscoveryofOviraploradultsontopofOviraploregg
  clutches(asdeterminedbyembryosinsomeeggs),isrelativelypowerfulevidencethatat
  leastthesedinosaursincubatedtheirnests.
  Evidenceforparentalcarefollowinghatchingismuchmorecontroversial.Behavioral
  speculationbasedonindirectfossilevidenceisdangerousbecausethedataisnotalways
  asunambiguousasmightappear.AtEggMountain,manynestscontainbabydinosaurbones.
  Notallthedinosaursinthenestarethesamesize.Manyofthesmallbonesfoundinthenests
  areassociatedwithjawsandteeth,teeththatshowsignsofwear.Itseemsreasonabletoassume
  thatthewearwascausedbythechewingofthecoarseplantsthatwerethehatchlings’
  diet.Becausetheyoungwerestillinthenest,thisfoodmayhavebeenbroughttothe
  rookerybyforagingadults.Thislineofreasoningsuggeststhattheseanimalshadanadvanced
  systemofparentalcare.Acloserlookattheevidencecloudsthisinterpretation.Analysisof
  dinosaurembryosindicatesthatwornsurfacesarepresentontheteethofjuvenilesevenbefore
  hatching.Justasahumanbabymovesinsidethemotherbeforebirth,modern-dayarchosaurs
  alsogrindtheirteethbeforebirth,wearingthesurfaceinsomespots.Thus,thefossilevidence
  foranadvancedparentalcaresysteminextinctdinosaursissuggestivebutinconclusive,andit
  ishardeventoimaginethesortofpaleontologicdiscoverythatcouldsettlethisdebateforgood.
  Thestrongestevidencethatextinctdinosaurshadsomeformofadvancedparentalcaresystem
  isbasedonanunderstandingofthephylogeneticrelationshipsamongdinosaursandtheir
  closestlivingrelatives.Livingdinosaurs(birds),evenprimitiveonessuchasostrichesandkiwis,
  exhibitparentalcare,sosomeformofparentalcarecanbeinferredtohaveexistedinthelast
  commonancestorofallbirds.Althoughunappreciated,crocodilesarereptilesthatarealso
  caringparents.Theybuildnests,guardthenests,andinsomecasesdigtheiryoungoutofthe
  nestwhentheyhearthechirpingyoungoneshatching.Theyoungevencommunicatewitheach
  otherwhilestillintheeggbyhigh-frequencysqueaks(asbirdsdo).Someevidencesuggests
  thatthissqueakingisacueforthesynchronizationofthehatching.Sincebirdsandcrocodiles
  shareacommonancestor,thesimplestexplanationforthecharacteristicstheyshare(suchas
  nestbuildingandsomeformofparentalcare)isthattheyevolvedonlyonce—thatthese
  attributeswerepresentintheircommonancestorandpassedontoitsdescendants.Because
  extinctdinosaursalsodescendedfromthatancestor,thesimplestandmostgeneraltheoryisthat
  extinctdinosaursalsosharedthesecharacteristics,eventhoughtheycannotbe
  directlyobserved,andwecannotbesurehowelaboratetheirparentalcarewas.
  Passage学科分类题目
  three自然科学类
  TheFormationofEarth’sAtmosphere
  内容回忆
  重复2016年11月26日以及2017年3月11日:文章开头提到了地球早期的大气里是
  只有氢气和氦气,因为地球原始大气非常炎热,构成原始地球大气层的气体分子的一
  个特点是会不断地高速移动,有一个极端的假设是如果这些分子不是互相抵消中和的
  话,地球的大气层到最后就会消失;另一个关于这些气体分子的特点是当这些气体分子
  移动速度快到一定程度时,这些气体是可以不受地心引力的控制的,氢气和氧气是损
  失的最多的两类气体分子;地球上的火山爆发带来了水蒸气和二氧化碳,水蒸气凝结
  为现在的海洋;在原始的大气中是没有氧气的,但是有一类细菌是厌氧性细菌并且可
  以将空气中的二氧化碳转化为氧气,并且这类细菌最后会沉淀构成了现在的海床;最后
  一段是讲为什么氮气是现在大气中构成最多的气体,氮气的形成十分缓慢,但是相比
  二氧化碳和水蒸气,氮气非常难以消散和离开地球,因此随着时间的推移氮气渐渐成
  了空气中最主要的构成成分。
  参考阅读
  Inthe4.6billionyearsofEarth’shistory,thecompositionoftheatmospherehaschangedfroma
  hazy,unfamiliarmixtotoday’smostlyblueskies.Astheatmospheredeveloped,lifebeganand
  evolved.Theevolutionoflivingthingschangedtheatmosphere,andthosechangesinturn
  alteredlife.Asfarasweknow,therelationshipisuniquetoourplanet.
  Todeducewhattheatmospherehasbeenlikeforbillionsofyears,paleontologists,geologists,
  andpaleoclimatologistsstudyrocks,ancientsoils,andfossils.Witheverynewfind,theyimprove
  andrefinetheirunderstandingofancientatmospheres.
  WhenEarthformed4.6billionyearsagofromahotmixofgasesandsolids,ithadalmostno
  atmosphere.Thesurfacewasmolten.AsEarthcooled,anatmosphereformedmainlyfromgases
  spewedfromvolcanoes.Itincludedhydrogensulfide,methane,andtento200timesasmuch
  carbondioxideastoday’satmosphere.Afterabouthalfabillionyears,Earth’ssurfacecooledand
  solidifiedenoughforwatertocollectonit.
  2.7billionyearsago,bluish-greenmicroscopicorganismscalledcyanobacteriaflourishedin
  Earth’soceans.Theymadegaseous,orfree,oxygenfromcarbondioxide,water,and
  sunlight—theprocesscalledphotosynthesis.Ascyanobacteriacreatedmorefreeoxygen,the
  amountofoxygenintheatmospherereachedonepercentoftoday’slevel,whichis21percent.
  Passage
  Four
  学科分类题目
  生物类
  TheoriesofMegafaunaExtinction
  内容回忆
  这篇加试文章主要围绕大型哺乳动物的灭绝的两个成因的讨论展开—人类活动还是气候变
  化,文章一共分成五段:第一和第二段认为是人类活动造成了大型哺乳动物的灭绝并解释
  了原因,第三段进一步支持前两段认为气候改变不是造成大型哺乳动物灭绝的原因,而最
  后两段转而支持气候变化是导致大型哺乳动物灭绝的原因。
  参考阅读
  TPO54-2OverkilloftheNorthAmericanMegafauna
  Thousandsofyearsago,inNorthAmerica'spast,allofitsmegafauna—largemammalssuchas
  mammothsandgiantbears—disappeared.Oneproposedexplanationforthiseventisthatwhen
  thefirstAmericansmigratedoverfromAsia,theyhuntedthemegafaunatoextinction.These
  people,knownastheClovissocietyafterasitewheretheirdistinctivespearpointswerefirst
  found,wouldhavebeenabletousethisfoodsourcetoexpandtheirpopulationandfillthe
  continentrapidly.Yetmanyscientistsargueagainstthis"Pleistoceneoverkill"hypothesis.
  Modernhumanshavecertainlybeencapableofsuchdrasticeffectsonanimals,butcouldancient
  peoplewithlittlemorethanstonespearssimilarlyhavecausedtheextinctionofnumerous
  speciesofanimals?Thirty-fivegeneraorgroupsofspecies(andmanyindividualspecies)
  sufferedextinctioninNorthAmericaaround11,000B.C.,soonaftertheappearanceand
  expansionofPaleo-lndiansthroughouttheAmericas(27generadisappearedcompletely,and
  another8becamelocallyextinct,survivingonlyoutsideNorthAmerica).
  AlthoughtheclimatechangedattheendofthePleistocene,warmingtrendshadhappened
  before.Aperiodofmassiveextinctionoflargemammalslikethatseenabout11,000yearsago
  hadnotoccurredduringtheprevious400,000years,despitethesechanges.Theonlyapparently
  significantdifferenceintheAmericas11,000yearsagowasthepresenceofhumanhuntersof
  theselargemammals.Wasthiscoincidenceorcause-and-effect?
  Wedonotknow.EcologistPaulS.Martinhaschampionedthemodelthatassociatesthe
  extinctionoflargemammalsattheendofthePleistocenewithhumanpredation.Withresearcher
  J.E.Mosimann,hehasco-authoredaworkinwhichacomputermodelshowedthatinaround
  300years,giventherightconditions,asmallinfluxofhuntersintoeasternBeringia12,000years
  agocouldhavespreadacrossNorthAmericainawaveandwipedoutgameanimalstofeedtheir
  burgeoningpopulation.
  Theresearchersranthemodelseveralways,alwaysbeginningwithapopulationof100humans
  inEdmonton,inAlberta,Canada,at11,500yearsago.AssumingdifferentinitialNorthAmerican
  big-game-animalpopulations(75-150millionanimals)anddifferentpopulationgrowthratesfor
  thehumansettlers(0.65%-3.5%),andvaryingkillrates,MosimannandMartinderivedfiguresof
  between279and1,157yearsfrominitialcontacttobig-gameextinction.
  Manyscholarscontinuetosupportthisscenario.Forexample,geologistLarryAgenbroadhas
  mappedthelocationsofdatedClovissitesalongsidethedistributionofdatedsiteswherethe
  remainsofwoolymammothshavebeenfoundinbotharchaeologicalandpurelypaleontological
  contexts.Thesedistributionsshowremarkablesynchronicity(occurrenceatthesametime).
  Thereare,however,manyproblemswiththismodel.Significantly,thoughafewsitesarequite
  impressive,therereallyisverylittlearchaeologicalevidencetosupportit.Writingin1982,
  Martinhimselfadmittedthepaucityofevidence;forexample,atthatpoint,theremainsofonly
  38individualmammothshadbeenfoundatClovissites.Intheyearssince,fewadditional
  mammothshavebeenaddedtothelist;therearestillfewerthan20Clovissiteswherethe
  remainsofoneormoremammothshavebeenrecovered,aminusculeproportionofthemillions
  thatnecessarilywouldhavehadtohavebeenslaughteredwithintheoverkillscenario.
  ThoughMartinclaimsthelackofevidenceactuallysupportshismodel—theevidenceissparse
  becausethespreadofhumansandtheextinctionofanimalsoccurredsoquickly—thisargument
  seemsweak.Andhowcouldweeverdisproveit?AsarchaeologistDonaldGraysonpointsout,in
  othercaseswhereextinctionresultedfromthequickspreadofhumanhunters—forexample,the
  extinctionofthemoa,thelargeflightlessbirdofNewZealand—archaeologicalevidenceinthe
  formofremainsisabundant.Graysonhasalsoshownthattheevidenceisnotsoclearthatallor
  evenmostofthelargeherbivoresinlatePleistoceneAmericabecameextinctaftertheappearance
  ofClovis.Ofthe35extinctgenera,only8canbeconfidentlyassignedanextinctiondateof
  between12,000and10,000yearsago.Manyoftheoldergenera,Graysonargues,mayhave
  succumbedbefore12,000B.C.,atleasthalfacenturybeforetheClovisshowedupinthe
  AmericanWest.
  Passage
  Five
  学科分类题目
  自然科学-地质类
  HowSoilisFormed
  内容回忆
  重复2014.7.12真题,文章第一段接受啊土壤形成的一些影响因素:比如母质层,气候,地
  形等,第二段到第三段围绕各个不同影响因素对于土壤形成的影响分别一一介绍,第二段
  主要讲了母质层的不同对土壤肥沃程度的影响;第三段讲了气候,比如温度的高低对于土
  壤的湿度的影响;第四段讲了水参与到了土壤的所有生物化学反应中,第五段讲了地形是
  土壤变化主要影响因素;第六段:植被,动物,细菌和真菌对于土壤形成的影响;最后一
  段讲了岩石的风化以及有机物和土壤的矿化的积累沉淀需要很长的时间。
  参考阅读
  TPO36-1soilformation
  Livingorganismsplayanessentialroleinsoilformation.Thenumerousplantsandanimalsliving
  inthesoilreleasemineralsfromtheparentmaterialfromwhichsoilisformed,supplyorganic
  matter,aidinthetranslocation(movement)andaerationofthesoil,andhelpprotectthesoilfrom
  erosion.Thetypesoforganismsgrowingorlivinginthesoilgreatlyinfluencethesoil'sphysical
  andchemicalcharacteristics.Infact,formaturesoilsinmanypartsoftheworld,thepredominant
  typeofnaturalvegetationisconsideredthemostimportantdirectinfluenceonsoil
  characteristics.Forthisreason,asoilscientistcantellagreatdealabouttheattributesofthesoil
  inanygivenareasimplyfromknowingwhatkindofflorathesoilsupports.Thusprairiesand
  tundraregions,whichhavecharacteristicvegetations,alsohavecharacteristicsoils.
  Thequantityandtotalweightofsoilfloragenerallyexceedthatofsoilfauna.Byfarthemost
  numerousandsmallestoftheplantslivinginsoilarebacteria.Underfavorableconditions,a
  millionormoreofthesetiny,single-celledplantscaninhabiteachcubiccentimeterofsoil.Itis
  thebacteria,morethananyotherorganismsthatenablerockorotherparentmaterialtoundergo
  thegradualtransformationtosoil.Somebacteriaproduceorganicacidsthatdirectlyattackparent
  material,breakingitdownandreleasingplantnutrients.Othersdecomposeorganiclitter(debris)
  toformhumus(nutrient-richorganicmatter).Athirdgroupofbacteriainhabitstherootsystems
  ofplantscalledlegumes.Theseincludemanyimportantagriculturalcrops,suchasalfalfa,clover,
  soybeans,peas,andpeanuts.Thebacteriathatlegumeshostwithintheirrootnodules(small
  swellingsontheroot)changenitrogengasfromtheatmosphereintonitrogencompoundsthat
  plantsareabletometabolize,aprocess,knownasnitrogenfixationthatmakesthesoilmore
  fertile.Othermicroscopicplantsalsoareimportantinsoildevelopment.Forexample,inhighly
  acidicsoilswherefewbacteriacansurvive,fungifrequentlybecomethechiefdecomposersof
  organicmatter.
  Morecomplexformsofvegetationplayseveralvitalroleswithrespecttothesoil.Tress,grass,
  andotherlargeplantssupplythebulkofthesoil'shumus.Themineralsreleasedastheseplants
  decomposeonthesurfaceconstituteanimportantnutrientsourceforsucceedinggenerationsof
  plantsaswellasforothersoilorganisms.Inaddition,treescanextendtheirrootsdeepwithinthe
  soilandbringupnutrientsfromfarbelowthesurface.Thesenutrientseventuallyenrichthe
  surfacesoilwhenthetreedropsitsleavesorwhenitdiesanddecomposes.Finally,treesperform
  thevitalfunctionofslowingwaterrunoffandholdingthesoilinplacewiththeirrootsystems,
  thuscombatingerosion.Theincreasederosionthatoftenaccompaniesagriculturaluseofsloping
  landisprincipallycausedbytheremovalofitsprotectivecoverofnaturalvegetation.
  Animalsalsoinfluencesoilcomposition.Thefaunalcounterpartsofbacteriaareprotozoa.These
  single-celledorganismsarethemostnumerousrepresentativesoftheanimalkingdom,and,like
  bacteria,amillionormorecansometimesinhabiteachcubiccentimeterofsoil.Protozoafeedon
  organicmatterandhastenitsdecomposition.Amongothersoil-dwellinganimals,theearthworm
  isprobablythemostimportant.Underexceptionallyfavorableconditions,uptoamillion
  earthworms(withatotalbodyweightexceeding450kilograms)mayinhabitanacreofsoil.
  Earthwormsingestlargequantitiesofsoil,chemicallyalterit,andexcreteitasorganicmatter
  calledcasts.Thecastsformahigh-qualitynaturalfertilizer.Inaddition,earthwormsmixofsoil
  bothverticallyandhorizontally,improvingaerationanddrainage.
  Passage
  Six
  学科分类题目
  地质类
  GlacierEffect
  内容回忆
  第一段:冰川对陆地的作用很大,冰川的重量会使大陆表面下降,这个过程时间很长,然
  后地球表面又要用很长的时间来恢复原来的高度。
  第二段讲冰川的移动,随着冰川越来越大,收到重力的影响,会慢慢地移动,移动过程中
  会切割岩石,推倒树木,摧毁一切的植被生物。
  第三段:在平坦的地方形成的冰山会缓慢移动,朝各个方向发展,在山谷形成的冰川,因
  为垂直角度大,会形成V型冰川。
  最后一段:冰川会形成很多地形。
  参考阅读
  TPO15-3GlacierFormation
  Glaciersareslowlymovingmassesoficethathaveaccumulatedonlandinareaswheremore
  snowfallsduringayearthanmelts.Snowfallsashexagonalcrystals,butonceontheground,
  snowissoontransformedintoacompactedmassofsmaller,roundedgrains.Astheairspace
  aroundthemislessenedbycompactionandmelting,thegrainsbecomedenser.Withfurther
  melting,refreezing,andincreasedweightfromnewersnowfallabove,thesnowreachesa
  granularrecrystallizedstageintermediatebetweenflakesandiceknownasfirn.Withadditional
  time,pressure,andrefrozenmeltwaterfromabove,thesmallfirngranulesbecomelarger,
  interlockedcrystalsofblueglacialice.Whentheiceisthickenough,usuallyover30meters,the
  weightofthesnowandfirnwillcausetheicecrystalstowardthebottomtobecomeplasticandto
  flowoutwardordownwardfromtheareaofsnowaccumulation.
  Glaciersareopensystems,withsnowasthesystem’sinputandmeltwaterasthesystem'smain
  output.Theglacialsystemisgovernedbytwobasicclimaticvariables:precipitationand
  temperature.Foraglaciertogrowormaintainitsmass,theremustbesufficientsnowfallto
  matchorexceedtheannuallossthroughmelting,evaporation,andcalving,whichoccurswhen
  theglacierlosessolidchunksasicebergstotheseaortolargelakes.Ifsummertemperaturesare
  highfortoolong,thenallthesnowfallfromthepreviouswinterwillmelt.Surplussnowfallis
  essentialforaglaciertodevelop.Asurplusallowssnowtoaccumulateandforthepressureof
  snowaccumulatedovertheyearstotransformburiedsnowintoglacialicewithadepthgreat
  enoughfortheicetoflow.Glaciersaresometimesclassifiedbytemperatureasfaster-flowing
  temperateglaciersorasslower-flowingpolarglaciers.
  GlaciersarepartofEarth’shydrologiccycleandaresecondonlytotheoceansinthetotal
  amountofwatercontained.About2percentofEarth’swateriscurrentlyfrozenasice.Two
  percentmaybeadeceivingfigure,however,sinceover80percentoftheworld’sfreshwateris
  lockedupasiceinglaciers,withthemajorityofitinAntarctica.Thetotalamountoficeiseven
  moreawesomeifweestimatethewaterreleaseduponthehypotheticalmeltingoftheworld’s
  glaciers.Sealevelwouldriseabout60meters.Thiswouldchangethegeographyoftheplanet
  considerably.Incontrast,shouldanothericeageoccur,sealevelwoulddropdrastically.During
  thelasticeage,sealeveldroppedabout120meters.
  Passage
  Seven
  学科分类题目
  历史类美索不达米亚和埃及
  内容回忆
  主要讲美索不达米亚人和埃及人的主要区别。
  前三段在讲m的城市,决定市中心的位置和大小主要取决于时候能从别的城市获得食物的
  能力,因此在市中心人口最多,城市的人口分布不均匀;不同城市之间的间隔是由城墙来
  区别的;主要的business是手工艺品;后两段讲的是埃及,埃及的城市是均匀分布的,分
  布在尼罗河附近,大家都有相对均衡的资源来源,不同城市之间不需要有竞争;埃及的主
  要生意来源是tradingandshipping,因为靠着河岸边有很多港口;不同小城市之间不需要由
  城墙去区分开来,大家生活的都很融洽
  参考阅读TheancientcivilizationsofMesopotamiaandEgyptwerebothfacilitatedbyriversthatranin
  theirmidst.TheEuphrates,Tigris,andtheNiledepositedsiltalongriverbankswhichmadethe
  adjoininglandextremelyfertile.ThisledtothedevelopmentofcitieslikeUrandErikuin
  Mesopotamia,andThebesinancientEgypt.InEgypt,theNileservedasameansof
  transportationandalsoprovidedprotectionfromenemiesbecauseitsmarshydeltasmade
  invasionalmostimpossible.AncientEgyptandMesopotamia,though,hadfundamental
  differencesinthewaytheirsocietieswereruled,aswellasindevelopmentsconcerningcultural
  andreligiouslife.
  AncientEgypthadadifferentpoliticalstructurefromMesopotamia.InancientEgypt,the
  Pharaohwasconsideredtobetherepresentativeofthegodsonearth.Thecitizensofancient
  EgyptbelievedthattheirPharaohwasagod,andrefrainedfromlookingdirectlyathisfaceeven
  whenaddressedbyhim(Richards&VanBuren,2000).Themajorityofnoblemenwhowere
  appointedtosignificantpositionsinancientEgyptwererelatedtothePharaoh.Uponhisdeath,
  onlyasonofthePharaohcouldsucceedhim.InancientMesopotamia,societyconsistedof
  self-governingregionalstatesfortencenturiesbeforeSargontheGreatwasproclaimedaskingin
  2370BCE(Brischetal.,2008).ThecitizensofMesopotamia,however,didnotconsidertheking
  orhissuccessorstobedivine.InMesopotamia,mostofthescribeswerethemembersofnoble
  familiesandnotrelatedtorulingkings.
  AnothermajordifferencebetweenancientEgyptandMesopotamiahastodo
  withreligionandculture.InMesopotamia,womencouldgetpermitstoparticipateintrade,and
  evenmanagedproperty.However,therewererulesenshrinedintheCodeofHammurabiwhich
  preventedthemfrominheritingpropertyoncetheirhusbandsdied(Suter&Croddy,1983).In
  ancientEgypt,though,womenwereallowedtotakeoverathirdoftheirhusbands’properties
  whentheybecamewidows.AncientEgyptandMesopotamiahadhighlyevolvedcultureswhich
  supportedthedevelopmentofwritingstylesandlanguages.
  InMesopotamia,theSumeriansdevelopedthewritingsystemknownascuneiformtofacilitate
  thepreservationofrecords(Richards&VanBuren,2000).Cuneiform,whichwasexpressed
  throughpieshapes,waswritteninclaytabletswhichwouldthenbeexposedtothesuntodry.In
  ancientEgypt,thescribesusedhieroglyphicstoexpressideasandconcepts.Thislanguagehad
  alphabeticelementsaswellaslogos(Richards&VanBuren,2000).
  InancientEgypt,asinMesopotamia,multiplegodsandgoddesseswereworshipped.In
  Mesopotamia,largebuildingsnamedzigguratsservedastempleswhereworshipperscouldmake
  sacrificesandpray(Connan,1999).InancientEgypt,templeswereordinaryhouse-likestructures
  whereritualswereoftenconductedbyprieststoappeasenumerousgodsandgoddesses.Ancient
  Egyptiansalsotookcaretopreparethemselvesfortheafterlifeduringtheirlivesonearth.
  所考词汇
  diverse=varied
  Compensated=makeupfor
  Refuge=protected
  Critically=dangerously
  Further=additionally
  Fluctuations=variations
  Inhibit=slowdown
  Impeded=restriction
  Distortions=irregularities
  Temporarily=briefly
  Peculiar=unusual
  Classic=typical
  Remnant=remains
  Vigorous=lively
  Ringed=surrounded
  Constituent=component
  Gradual=slow
  Predominate=areinthemajority
  Diffuse=spread
  Alleged=supposed
  Controversial=debatable
  Inconclusive=notdecisive
  Mounting=increasing
  Depositing=putting
  2018年8月26日托福听力回忆和解析
  环球教育上海学校
  黄清整理点评
  Conversation1
  话题分类活动有关
  内容回忆一个学生会好多乐器,表演的时候很紧张,教授夸她,两个人商业互吹。教授说有个新的电子乐器
  T,像box,左手控制音量,右手控制音高,会的人很少,有个音乐家要在学校一个会上表演,教授
  让她去看,最后让她去参加晚上的演奏会,不正式,以后可以去formal的。另外一个人摄影学生,
  教授喊她来,有个杂志征稿,是个好机会让她投稿,然后她说之前的杂志获奖编辑没选上的可以吗,
  教授说相信你的艺术感觉,光线和构图非常棒。
  参考听力TPO22.4。由最近的考试趋势可以看出,跟音乐有关的对话出现频率越来越高。
  Conversation2
  话题分类活动有关
  内容回忆要弄一个网站运营的机构方便新生了解各种各样的信息,club的信息不好获得,老师问她必要性,
  她说了自己和指导员还是新生的情况,认为有必要成立,谈到花费的问题,网站已经运行了,她说
  只需要很小的地方,老师说还是要做一个详细计划预算之类的。
  参考听力
  TPO21.1
  Lecture1
  话题分类天文学
  内容回忆天文学说有三种星系,Spiral,中间有disk,外头有东西绕来绕去。第二种,没有disk,然后重点讲
  了一个M104。第三种是不属于这两种不规则的。一开始以为是第一种,后来又不是,主要是因为
  望远镜的进步。然后说变形是shapes,可以体现年纪。最后说科学就是这样在推翻和反复中发展什
  么的。
  参考听力TPO42.3。天文学是比较难的一个学科,需要学生有一定的背景知识和词汇积累,而且出现频率也
  比较高,要引起足够重视,考前一定要多做练习。
  Lecture2
  话题分类艺术
  内容回忆电影-realistic。比其他艺术形式更能体现真实。一开始技术限制,远处不清楚,后来技术进步,deep
  focus。有个导演把远近都包括在内,让观众自己选focus。介绍了他的一个作品,有乔治和他妈妈,
  还有很多景象。从这个画面中可以得出非常多信息。
  参考听力
  TPO2.3
  Lecture3
  话题分类艺术
  内容回忆一个是乔治华盛顿的雕塑,两个人,一个人弄的写实主义,体现民主,一个华丽像神,不被人接受。
  参考听力
  TPO18.3
  Lecture4
  话题分类建筑学
  内容回忆讲的是演变过程,从新建筑材料的出现,morestrong。提到伦敦火车站,很大,内部精美design。
  最后是一个建筑家建了一栋高楼,大窗户让光线充足,内部宽敞。他开创了,formfollowfunction。
  参考听力
  TPO11.3
  More
  Conversation1
  话题分类学习有关
  内容回忆教授建议学生drop他的课程,因为学生第一次交的作业完成的很不错,教授认为学生可以上高级一
  点的法语课。学生说自己从八岁到十五岁都生活在巴黎。但学生已经选了一个高级英语课了,需要
  学习莎士比亚,需要花费很多精力。
  参考听力TPO23.3。学习场景在对话中出现频率最高,选课是其中经常考的内容,一般来说只要不涉及课程
  具体学科知识,就会比较简单。
  Lecture1
  话题分类天文学
  内容回忆一个原因是太阳的磁场和地球磁场碰撞,一个原因是太阳自转什么的,甩出来的粒子和其他粒子结
  合就可以冲破地球的大气层,就可以行成闪电。后面又说下午的时候闪电发生
  最频繁,早上闪电最强。
  参考听力TPO42.3。天文学是比较难的一个学科,需要学生有一定的背景知识和词汇积累,而且出现频率也
  比较高,这次考试就出现好几篇天文学的Lecture,因此要引起足够重视,考前一定要多做练习。
  Lecture2
  话题分类考古学
  内容回忆罗塞塔石碑(Rosettastone)
  参考听力TPO25.5讲的也是Rosettastone。考古学是比较难的一个学科,大家注意记下文章时间点与对应事
  件,以及不同假说。
  2018年8月26日托福口语回忆和解析
  环球教育上海学校
  唐雨洁整理点评
  综合点评
  本次考试口语部分难度中等,属于常规考题,通过抓取有效信息和有条理的逻辑可以拿到一个较好的
  分数。
  Task1
  考题回忆
  Whataretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofforcingfreshmentoparticipatedoptional
  courses?Explainwhy.Pleaseincludedetailsandexampleinyourexplanations.
  话题分类
  Familiartopics
  解题思路
  优缺点类大范围考题
  参考范文
  AsfarasIknow,oneobviousadvantageofparticipatingoptionalcoursesforfreshmenisthat
  itcanmakeyoubecomeknowledgeable.Plus,someselectivecoursescouldhelpnewstudents
  todevelopacomprehensiveviewandhaveabetterunderstandingofyourownarea.For
  example,whenIwasinuniversity,Ichosesomecoursesofinternationalrelationshipwhich
  seemedprettyhelpfulformyjournalismcourse.However,thedisadvantagesarealsoapparent,
  itmaytaketonsoftimeassomestudentshavealreadyseveralplanssuchasgroupmeetings,
  clubsandsocialevents.Anotherdisadvantageisthatitisnotbeneficialtostudentstoadapt
  universitylifetimely.Thefirstyearforuniversitystudentistoexplorethepotentialand
  hobbiespassionately.
  录音配有录音(录音请放在附件发送,录音命名“task1录音”)
  Task2
  考题回忆
  Somepeopleprefertoworkingathomewithoutanytimelimitationwhileotherspreferto
  workingincompanywithafixedworkinghours?Whichonedoyoupreferandwhy?
  话题分类
  Familiartopics
  解题思路
  给出合理理由,选择两者都可以。
  参考范文
  Iprefertoworkingathomeflexiblyforthefollowingreasons.First,mytimetableispretty
  stressful.Ican’tstopcomplainingtheterriblesituationduringpeak-timeparticularlyin
  Shanghai,it’ssortofdisasterfortakingsubwaylinesfromMondaytoFriday.Also,the
  workingenvironmentathomeisrelativelybetterthancompany.Itmayprovideaquiet
  atmosphereforyoutodevelopcreativeideastopresentyourjob.Asfordesigners,theymay
  needinspirationsforcomposingartwork.Besides,maintaininganeightorninehoursworking
  timeincompanymayharmfulforourhealth.IgetmoodywhenIhaveafixedworking
  scheduleatmyofficefilledwiththingstodo,justlookingatitgivesmeheadaches.
  录音配有录音(录音请放在附件发送,录音命名“task2录音”)
  Task3
  考题回忆阅读部分学校给大一新生提供免费早餐,并且给学生制造交流机会
  听力部分学生同意这个提议,两个理由:一是认为可以省钱,同时吃到很多种类的
  早餐,二是学生认为这是一个社交的好机会,可以认识更多的同学。
  话题分类
  CampusSituations
  解题思路一到两句话概况阅读中的内容,听力中首先表明学生的态度然后阐述理由。
  参考范文
  Accordingtotheannouncement,theuniversityhasinitiatedanewpolicythatitisgoingto
  providefreebreakfastserviceforthefirstyearstudentsbycreatingmorechancesforstudents
  tocommunicate.
  Intheconversation,themantotallyagreeswiththeideaandtherearetworeasonswhyhe
  thinksso.Thefirstreasonisthathebelievesbyofferingafreebreakfastservicecanhelp
  studentssavemoney.Clearly,itisaffordableforstudentstoeatatschoolsincethereisno
  additionalfeeforit.Also,theschoolisgoingtoprovidevarioussortsofbreakfastanditis
  goodforhealthbecausestudentcanchooseitwhatevertheywantandhaveabalanceddiet.
  Thesecondreasonthatthemansuggestsisthatbyeatingfreebreakfastatschool,firstyear
  studentswillhavemorechancestosocializingoncampus.Usually,refectoryisagoodplace
  forstudentstotalkingorchattingwitheachother.Thosearethetworeasonswhytheman
  supportstheideainthereading.
  录音配有录音(录音请放在附件发送,录音命名“task3录音”)
  Task4
  考题回忆阅读部分一个概念,Carryovereffects(翘尾因素),上一次的努力对第二次的影响。
  听力部分教授举了一个例子(一项调查),对一群人做数学题的时候计时,播放古
  典音乐再做类似的题,会发现解题时间更快了,有些人会认为是古典音乐
  的影响,而有些人认为是已经做过类似的题的原因。
  话题分类
  AcademicContents
  解题思路
  先用一两句解释术语的概念,再论述教授给的例子来证明概念。
  参考范文
  Thereadingpassagerevealstheconceptofcarryovereffect,whichmeansthephenomenonthat
  oneexperimentalconditioninfluencesontothenextperiod.Wheneversubjectsperformin
  morethanonecondition,thereisapossibilityofcarryovereffects.
  Inthelecture,theprofessorusedtheexampleofmathematicsquestionstoillustratecarryover
  effect.Accordingtotheexperiment,researchersfirsttimedagroupofpeopletodomathematic
  questions.Andthesecondtime,whenthesamegroupofpeopledoingthesamequestionswith
  aclassicalmusicbackground,researchersfoundthattheydiditfasterthanthefirsttime.
  However,theexperimentcannotdemonstrateclassicalmusicactuallyputintoeffectinsolving
  mathematicsquestionsanditmayhavefamiliarityeffectsincethefirsttime.That’sthe
  exampletheprofessorpresentedinthelisteningtoexplaintheconceptofcarryovereffect.
  录音配有录音(录音请放在附件发送,录音命名“task4录音”)
  Task5
  考题回忆女生是Businessclub的主席,年末要发的礼物马克杯出现了问题,印错了。
  有两个解决方案:
  一是公司免费重新做,但是要等一周,时间晚了买那个时候学生都回家了她还要自己寄
  给毕业生。
  二是退钱,去学校里买点东西,T恤之类的,但是就没有business的标志了。
  话题分类
  CampusSituations
  解题思路先转述遇到的问题和解决方案;然后在两个方案中选择一个并阐述理由。
  参考范文
  Intheconversation,thegirlhasaproblemthattherewasamisprintonthemugsforthe
  businessclubannualgraduationgift.Therearetwopossiblesolutionsforher.Thefirstoneis
  thatthegirlcanaskcompanytomanufacturethenewmugswithbusinesslogo,butthe
  problemisthatshehastowaitoneweek.Sincethetimeislate,manystudentshavealreadygo
  backhomeandshehastodelivertoeachgraduaterespectively.Thesecondsolutionisthatshe
  canaskthecompanytorefundandbuyothersouvenirssuchasT-shirtorsomerelateditemsas
  thegraduationgift,however,thereisnobusinessclublogoonit.
  Inmyopinion,itwouldbemuchbetterforthegirltochoosethefirstsolutionbecauseasthe
  businessclubgraduatestudent,itattachesgreatimportanceofthegift.Imean,ifotheritems
  likeT-shirtwithoutlogoandthat’sjustnotworthit.
  录音配有录音(录音请放在附件发送,录音命名“task5录音”)
  Task6
  考题回忆
  主题:食草动物在冻土中如何寻找非常有限的食物的,分别列举了两个能力:
  第一:定位食物的能力:
  有一种生物的鼻子很厉害,可以闻到冰雪下面的食物,当发现食物的时候就可以用爪子
  刨开冰来获取。
  第二:消化道里有一种特殊物质:
  某种生物消化道里有一种特殊的酶,可以帮助该生物消化一种其他生物难以消化的植物
  Lichen
  话题分类
  AcademicContents
  解题思路先说主题,再阐述主题中的两个分论点
  参考范文
  Inthelecture,theprofessormainlytalksabouttwowaysthathowherbivoreanimalscapture
  foodinthefrozenearthorthecoldenvironmentwithitsnaturaladaptations.Thefirstoneis
  abouttheabilityoflocatingfood.Forexample,thenoseofakindofbiologyspeciesis
  criticallyimportantbecauseitcansmelloutthefoodundertheiceandsnow.Bythisway,the
  speciesusepawstoscratchicetohuntfood.Thesecondwaythatthereisaspecialsubstance
  inthedigestivetract.Aspecialenzymeinthedigestivetracthelpstheorganismdigestsaplant
  andgetnutritionwhichisdifficultforotherorganismstodigest.Forexample,theorganism
  eatssomethingelsethatlichenfromtreewhileotheranimalsdonoteat.Sothosearethetwo
  waysofhowherbivoreanimalsfindfood.
  录音配有录音(录音请放在附件发送,录音命名“task6录音”)
  2018年8月26日托福写作回忆和解析
  环球教育上海环球
  于曦整理点评
  综合点评
  综合写作属于生物类话题,独立写作是工作&教育结合话题。
  综合写作
  话题分类生物类型
  考题回忆总论点一种flatworm引进欧洲后对当地的物种产生了很大的危害,生物入侵。文章中有三种
  解决方法来减少这种虫的数量。
  阅读部分1.Biologymethod:从这种虫子的发源地import一种它的predator来吃掉或者让欧洲
  本地的鸟类和爬虫类来吃它;
  2.Chemistrymethod:用化学杀虫剂来杀掉这些多余的虫子,寻找一种对它有害但是
  对别的物种无害的化学杀虫剂;
  3.Dipthesoilofthetransplantedplantsinhotwater.热水可以杀死土里的flatworm的
  卵。
  听力部分1.在原产地没有发现这种虫子的天敌,并没有动物吃这种虫。而且在欧洲的鸟类和
  爬虫类也不吃这种虫子因为它的味道酸而且令人不悦;
  2.这种虫子对于大部分化学杀虫剂都resistant。只有一种杀虫剂对它能产生危害,但
  这种杀虫剂对于其他的wildlife也会产生危害;
  3.如果植物的土很大,即使放在热水里也不能穿透土壤。所以土壤深处的虫卵还是
  能够在热水泡过之后存活下来。
  解题思路解释听力如何反驳阅读内容。
  参考范文
  Boththereadingandthelisteningdiscussaboutthesolutionstoreducethepopulationof
  flatworm.Thereadingraisesthreemethods,whilethelisteningarguesagainsteachofthethree
  solutions.
  First,thereadingproposesthatakindofpredatorcanbeimportedtoeatflatworm.However,
  thelisteningpointsoutthatflatwormshavenosuchpredator.Worse,birdsandreptilesin
  Europewon’tfeedonflatwormsinceittastessourandunpleasant.
  Second,accordingtothereading,flatwormcanbekilledbyaspecialtypeofpesticide.Yet,the
  lecturerarguesthatthisisnotpromisingasflatwormisresistanttomostkindsofpesticide
  exceptforonekind.Unluckily,thistypeofpesticidewillkillofotherspecieswildlife,causing
  undesirabledamage.
  Third,asthereadingsuggests,wecandipthesoilofthetransplantedplantsinhotwater,
  whichcanhelpkilltheeggsinsidethesoil.Thelistening,ontheotherhand,assertsthateven
  bydoingso,someeggsoftheflatwormcanstillsurvive.
  独立写作
  话题分类教育&工作类
  考题回忆在工作中得到更高的职位或者在学习中获得更好的成绩,你会选择以下哪种方法:
  1.多做extraoradditionaljobs;
  2.participatemoreactivelyorstatemorepersonalopinionsingroupdiscussions.
  解题思路这篇文章可以按照平行架构构建文章,一段讨论工作,一段讨论学习,再设置一个让步段。
  1.在学习中为了获得更好的成绩,需要更多的参与到小组讨论中因为一般最终成绩的评判都会分为
  考试以及平时的表现;
  2.在工作中,为了得到职业晋升,在小组的表现尤为重要因为可以更好的向同事和supervisor展示
  自己的综合能力:自信,沟通能力,口才和逻辑等。
  参考范文
  Personaldevelopmentisalifelongprocess.Itisawayforpeopletoassesstheirskills,consider
  theiraimsinlifeandsetgoalsinordertomaximizetheirpotentialbothinacademicfieldand
  incareer.Bothwaysmentionedinthetopicwillhelp.However,asfarasI’mconcerned,
  participatingmoreactivelyorstatingmorepersonalopinionsingroupdiscussionisamore
  effectiveapproach.
  Forstudentstoachievebetteracademicperformance,theyneedtounderstandhowschools
  designandconductevaluation.Generallyspeaking,schoolevaluationnotonlyinvolves
  students’academicability,butalsoputsemphasisontheirattendance,senseofresponsibility
  andtheabilitytoworkinagroup,etc.Obviously,suchqualitiescaneasilybeshownduring
  theprocessofengagingingroupdiscussion.Whetherornotthestudentisproactiveenough,or
  whetherthestudentcanlistentootherpeople’sopinionsandprovideeffectiveresponseor
  statementsdefinitelytellalotaboutthisstudent’scomprehensiveability,whichoughtbe
  consideredwhenteachersdecidethefinalgradeofeachstudent.
  Forcareeradvancement,activeparticipationingroupdiscussionalsoplaysapivotalrole.For
  instance,bytheendofeachyear,manyemployeeswillreceivetheirannualreport,inwhichit
  evaluatesanemployee’sworkperformanceandassignshis/herbonusorpromotion.Amongall
  thequalities,theabilitytoworkandparticipatewellinagroupishighlystressedbymost
  renownedcompanies.Ifanemployeecanbemoreactive,statingmorepersonalopinions,
  he/shecancontributetoincreaseacompany’sefficiencyandtogeneratemoreideas.Itisalsoa
  learningopportunityforlessexperiencedworkers.Hence,anactiveemployeeswhoiswilling
  tospeakupmoreduringgroupdiscussionsshouldbevaluedbythecompany.
  Admittedly,somepeoplewhohavetalenttendtoindulgeintheirsolitaryactivities.Theyare
  hardworking,puttinginextraeffortstobetterthemselves.However,beingtooindependentor
  toodetachedfromotherpeoplewillalsoresultinlowefficiencyandpartialperception,which
  mightnegativelyaffectastudent’sacademicperformanceoranemployee’scareer
  advancement.Inanutshell,personaldevelopmentdependsmoreonactiveparticipationin
  groupdiscussion.

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